Tidal power, also called tidal energy, is a form of hydropower that converts the energy of tides into electricity or other useful forms of power. The first large-scale tidal power plant is Rance Tidal Power Station, started operation in 1966.

Although not yet widely used, tidal power has potential for future electricity generation. Tides are more predictable than wind energy and solar power. Among sources of renewable energy, tidal power has traditionally suffered from relatively high cost and limited availability of sites with sufficiently high tidal ranges or flow velocities, thus constricting its total availability. However, many recent technological developments and improvements, both in design (e.g. dynamic tidal power, tidal lagoons) and turbine technology (e.g. new axial turbines, cross-flow turbines), indicate that the total availability of tidal power may be much higher than previously assumed, and that economic and environmental costs may be brought down to competitive levels.

Historically, tide mills have been used, both in Europe and on the Atlantic coast of North America. The earliest occurrences date from the Middle Ages, or even from Roman times.

Tidal power can be classified into three generating methods:

Tidal stream generator

Tidal stream generators (TSGs) make use of the kinetic energy of moving water to power turbines, in a similar way to wind turbines that use moving air. This method is gaining in popularity because of the lower cost and lower ecological impact compared to tidal barrages.

A tidal stream generator (TSG) is a machine that extracts energy from moving masses of water, or tides. These machines function very much like underwater wind turbines, hence are also sometimes referred to as tidal turbines.

TSGs are the cheapest and the least ecologically damaging among the three main forms of tidal power generation.

Turbine power

Various turbine designs have varying efficiencies and therefore varying power output. If the efficiency of the turbine "ξ" is known the equation below can be used to determine the power output of a turbine.

The energy available from these kinetic systems can be expressed as:

where:

ξ = the turbine efficiency

P = the power generated (in watts)

ρ = the density of the water (seawater is 1025 kg/m³)

A = the sweep area of the turbine (in m²)

V = the velocity of the flow

Relative to an open turbine in free stream, depending on the geometry of the shroud shrouded turbines are capable of as much as 3 to 4 times the power of the same turbine rotor in open flow.

Resource assessment

While initial assessments of the available energy in a channel have focus on calculations using the kinetic energy flux model, the limitations of tidal power generation are significantly more complicated. For example, the maximum physical possible energy extraction from a strait connecting two large basins is given to within 10% by:

where

ρ = the density of the water (seawater is 1025 kg/m³)

g = gravitational acceleration (9.81 m/s²)

ΔH_max = maximum differential water surface elevation across the channel

Q_max= maximum volumetric flow rate though the channel.

Tidal Barrage

Tidal barrages make use of the potential energy in the difference in height (or head) between high and low tides. Barrages are essentially dams across the full width of a tidal estuary, and suffer from very high civil infrastructure costs, a worldwide shortage of viable sites and environmental issues.

A Tidal barrage is a dam-like structure used to capture the energy from masses of water moving in and out of a bay or river due to tidal forces.

Instead of damming water on one side like a conventional dam, a tidal barrage first allows water to flow into the bay or river during high tide, and releasing the water back during low tide. This is done by measuring the tidal flow and controlling the sluice gates at key times of the tidal cycle. Turbines are then placed at these sluices to capture the energy as the water flows in and out.

The barrage method of extracting tidal energy involves building a barrage across a bay or river that is subject to tidal flow. Turbines installed in the barrage wall generate power as water flows in and out of the estuary basin, bay, or river. These systems are similar to a hydro dam that produces Static Head or pressure head (a height of water pressure). When the water level outside of the basin or lagoon changes relative to the water level inside, the turbines are able to produce power.

The basic elements of a barrage are caissons, embankments, sluices, turbines, and ship locks. Sluices, turbines, and ship locks are housed in caissons (very large concrete blocks). Embankments seal a basin where it is not sealed by caissons.

The sluice gates applicable to tidal power are the flap gate, vertical rising gate, radial gate, and rising sector.

Only a few such plants exist. The largest is the Rance Tidal Power Station, on the Rance river, in France, which has been operating since 1966, and generates 240MW. Smaller plants include one on the Bay of Fundy, and another across a tiny inlet in Kislaya Guba, Russia). A number of proposals have been considered for a Severn barrage across the River Severn, from Brean Down in England to Lavernock Point near Cardiff in Wales.

Barrage systems are affected by problems of high civil infrastructure costs associated with what is in effect a dam being placed across estuarine systems, and the environmental problems associated with changing a large ecosystem.

Ebb generation

The basin is filled through the sluices until high tide. Then the sluice gates are closed. (At this stage there may be "Pumping" to raise the level further). The turbine gates are kept closed until the sea level falls to create sufficient head across the barrage, and then are opened so that the turbines generate until the head is again low. Then the sluices are opened, turbines disconnected and the basin is filled again. The cycle repeats itself. Ebb generation (also known as outflow generation) takes its name because generation occurs as the tide changes tidal direction.

Flood generation

The basin is filled through the turbines, which generate at tide flood. This is generally much less efficient than ebb generation, because the volume contained in the upper half of the basin (which is where ebb generation operates) is greater than the volume of the lower half (filled first during flood generation). Therefore the available level difference — important for the turbine power produced — between the basin side and the sea side of the barrage, reduces more quickly than it would in ebb generation. Rivers flowing into the basin may further reduce the energy potential, instead of enhancing it as in ebb generation. Of course this is not a problem with the "lagoon" model, without river inflow.

Pumping

Turbines are able to be powered in reverse by excess energy in the grid to increase the water level in the basin at high tide (for ebb generation). This energy is more than returned during generation, because power output is strongly related to the head. If water is raised 2 ft (61 cm) by pumping on a high tide of 10 ft (3 m), this will have been raised by 12 ft (3.7 m) at low tide. The cost of a 2 ft rise is returned by the benefits of a 12 ft rise. This is since the correlation between the potential energy is not a linear relationship, rather, is related by the square of the tidal height variation.

Two-basin schemes

Another form of energy barrage configuration is that of the dual basin type. With two basins, one is filled at high tide and the other is emptied at low tide. Turbines are placed between the basins. Two-basin schemes offer advantages over normal schemes in that generation time can be adjusted with high flexibility and it is also possible to generate almost continuously. In normal estuarine situations, however, two-basin schemes are very expensive to construct due to the cost of the extra length of barrage. There are some favourable geographies, however, which are well suited to this type of scheme.

Tidal lagoon power

Tidal pools are independent enclosing barrages built on high level tidal estuary land that trap the high water and release it to generate power, single pool, around 3.3W/m2. Two lagoons operating at different time intervals can guarantee continuous power output, around 4.5W/m2. Enhanced pumped storage tidal series of lagoons raises the water level higher than the high tide, and uses intermittant renewables for pumping, around 7.5W/m2. i.e. 10 x 10 km delivers 750MW constant output 24/7. These independent barages do not block the flow of the river and are a viable alternative to the Severn Barrage.

Energy calculations

The energy available from a barrage is dependent on the volume of water. The potential energy contained in a volume of water is:

where:

• h is the vertical tidal range,
• A is the horizontal area of the barrage basin,
• ρ is the density of water = 1025 kg per cubic meter (seawater varies between 1021 and 1030 kg per cubic meter) and
• g is the acceleration due to the Earth's gravity = 9.81 meters per second squared.

The factor half is due to the fact, that as the basin flows empty through the turbines, the hydraulic head over the dam reduces. The maximum head is only available at the moment of low water, assuming the high water level is still present in the basin.

Example calculation of tidal power generation

Assumptions:

• Let us assume that the tidal range of tide at a particular place is 32 feet = 10 m (approx)
• The surface of the tidal energy harnessing plant is 9 km² (3 km × 3 km)= 3000 m × 3000 m = 9 × 10⁶ m²
• Density of sea water = 1025.18 kg/m³

Mass of the sea water = volume of sea water × density of sea water

= (area × tidal range) of water × mass density

= (9 × 10⁶ m² × 10 m) × 1025.18 kg/m³

= 92 × 10⁹ kg (approx)

Potential energy content of the water in the basin at high tide = ½ × area × density × gravitational acceleration × tidal range squared

= ½ × 9 × 10⁶ m² × 1025 kg/m³ × 9.81 m/s² × (10 m)²

=4.5 × 10¹² J (approx)

Now we have 2 high tides and 2 low tides every day. At low tide the potential energy is zero.
Therefore the total energy potential per day = Energy for a single high tide × 2

= 4.5 × 10¹² J × 2

= 9 × 10¹² J

Therefore, the mean power generation potential = Energy generation potential / time in 1 day

= 9 × 10¹² J / 86400 s

= 104 MW

Assuming the power conversion efficiency to be 30%: The daily-average power generated = 104 MW * 30% / 100%

= 31 MW (approx)

Because the available power varies with the square of the tidal range, a barrage is best placed in a location with very high-amplitude tides. Suitable locations are found in Russia, USA, Canada, Australia, Korea, the UK. Amplitudes of up to 17 m (56 ft) occur for example in the Bay of Fundy, where tidal resonance amplifies the tidal range.

Dynamic tidal power

Dynamic tidal power (or DTP) exploits an interaction between potential and kinetic energies in tidal flows. It proposes that very long dams (for example: 30–50 km length) be built from coasts straight out into the sea or ocean, without enclosing an area. Tidal phase differences are introduced by the dam, leading to a significant water level differential (at least 2–3 meters) in shallow coastal seas featuring strong coast-parallel oscillating tidal currents such as found in the UK, China and Korea. Each dam would generate power at a scale of 6 - 15 GW.

Dynamic tidal power or DTP is the newest technique of tidal power generation. It involves creating large dam-like structure extending from the coast straight to the ocean, with a perpendicular barrier at the far end, forming a large 'T' shape.

This long T-dam interferes with coast-parallel oscillating tidal waves which run along the coasts of continental shelves, containing powerful hydraulic currents (common in e.g. China, Korea, and the UK).

Run of the river hydroelectricity is a type of hydroelectric generation whereby the natural flow and elevation drop of a river are used to generate electricity. Power stations of this type are built on rivers with a consistent and steady flow, either natural or through the use of a large reservoir at the head of the river which then can provide a regulated steady flow for stations down-river.

The Concept of run of the river method

Run-of-river hydroelectricity is a type of hydroelectric generation whereby the natural flow and elevation drop of a river are used to generate electricity. Such projects divert some or most of a river’s flow (up to 95% of mean annual discharge) through a pipe and/or tunnel leading to electricity-generating turbines, then return the water back to the river downstream. A dam – smaller than used for traditional hydro – is required to ensure there is enough water to enter the “penstock” pipes that lead to the lower-elevation turbines.

Run-of-river projects are dramatically different in design and appearance from conventional hydroelectric projects. Traditional hydro dams store enormous quantities of water in reservoirs, necessitating the flooding of large tracts of land. In contrast, most run-of-river projects do not require a large impoundment of water, which is a key reason why such projects are often referred to as environmentally-friendly, or “green power.”

In recent years, many of the larger run-of-river projects have been designed to a scale and generating capacity rivaling some traditional hydro dams. For example, one run-of-river project currently proposed in British Columbia (BC) Canada – one of the world’s new epicenters of run-of-river development – has been designed to generate 1027 megawatts capacity.

Advantages using run of the river method

When developed with care to footprint size and location, run-of-river hydro projects can create sustainable green energy that minimizes impacts to the surrounding environment and nearby communities. Advantages include:

Cleaner Power, Less Greenhouse Gases

Like all hydro-electric power, run-of-river hydro harnesses the natural energy of water and gravity – eliminating the need to burn coal or natural gas to generate the electricity needed by consumers and industry.

Less Flooding/Reservoirs

Substantial flooding of the upper part of the river is not required for smaller-scale run-of-river projects as a large reservoir is not required. As a result, people living at or near the river don't need to be relocated and natural habitats and productive farmlands are not wiped out.

Disadvantages using Run of the river method

"Unfirm" Power

Run-of-River power is considered an “unfirm” source of power: a run-of-the-river project has little or no capacity for energy storage and hence can't co-ordinate the output of electricity generation to match consumer demand. It thus generates much more power during times when seasonal river flows are high (i.e, spring freshet), and much less during drier summer months.

Environmental Impacts

While small, well-sited run-of-river projects can be developed with minimal environmental impacts, many modern run-of-river projects are larger, with much more significant environmental concerns. For example, Plutonic Power Corp.’s Bute Inlet Hydroelectric Project in BC will see three clusters of run-of-river projects with 17 river diversions; as proposed, this run-of-river project will divert over 90 kilometres of streams and rivers into tunnels and pipelines, requiring 443 km of new transmission line, 267 km of permanent roads, and 142 bridges, to be built in wilderness areas.

British Columbia’s mountainous terrain and wealth of big rivers have made it a global testing ground for run-of-river technology. As of March 2010, there were 628 applications pending for new water licences solely for the purposes of power generation – representing more than 750 potential points of river diversion.

Many of the impacts of this technology are still not understood or well-considered, including the following:

• Diverting large amounts of river water reduce river flows affecting water velocity and depth, minimizing habitat quality for fish and aquatic organisms; reduced flows can lead to excessively warm water for salmon and other fish in summer. As planned, the Bute Inlet project in BC could divert 95 percent of the mean annual flow in at least three of the rivers).

• New access roads and transmission lines can cause extensive habitat fragmentation for many species, making inevitable the introduction of invasive species and increases in undesirable human activities, like illegal hunting.

• Cumulative impacts – the sum of impacts caused not only by the project, but by roads, transmission lines and all other nearby developments – are difficult to measure. Cumulative impacts are an especially important consideration in areas where projects are clustered in high densities close to sources of electricity demand: for example, of the 628 pending water license applications for hydro-power development in British Columbia, roughly one third are located in the south-western quarter of the province, where human population density and associated environmental impacts are highest.

• Water licenses – which are issued by the BC Ministry of Environment enabling developers to legally divert rivers – have not included clauses that specify changing water entitlements in response to altered conditions; this means that conflicts will arise over the water needed to both sustain aquatic life and generate power when river flow becomes more variable or decreases in the future.

Pumped-storage hydroelectricity is a type of hydroelectric power generation used by some power plants for load balancing. The method stores energy in the form of water, pumped from a lower elevation reservoir to a higher elevation. Low-cost off-peak electric power is used to run the pumps. During periods of high electrical demand, the stored water is released through turbines. Although the losses of the pumping process makes the plant a net consumer of energy overall, the system increases revenue by selling more electricity during periods of peak demand, when electricity prices are highest. Pumped storage is the largest-capacity form of grid energy storage now available.

Pumped Storage Hydroelectricity

At times of low electrical demand, excess generation capacity is used to pump water into the higher reservoir. When there is higher demand, water is released back into the lower reservoir through a turbine, generating electricity. Reversible turbine/generator assemblies act as pump and turbine (usually a Francis turbine design). Some facilities use abandoned mines as the lower reservoir, but many use the height difference between two natural bodies of water or artificial reservoirs. Pure pumped-storage plants just shift the water between reservoirs, but combined pump-storage plants also generate their own electricity like conventional hydroelectric plants through natural stream-flow. Plants that do not use pumped-storage are referred to as conventional hydroelectric plants; conventional hydroelectric plants that have significant storage capacity may be able to play a similar role in the electrical grid as pumped storage, by deferring output until needed.

Taking into account evaporation losses from the exposed water surface and conversion losses, approximately 70% to 85% of the electrical energy used to pump the water into the elevated reservoir can be regained. The technique is currently the most cost-effective means of storing large amounts of electrical energy on an operating basis, but capital costs and the presence of appropriate geography are critical decision factors.

The relatively low energy density of pumped storage systems requires either a very large body of water or a large variation in height. For example, 1000 kilograms of water (1 cubic meter) at the top of a 100 meter tower has a potential energy of about 0.272 kW·h (capable of raising the temperature of the same amount of water by only 0.23 Celsius = 0.42 Fahrenheit). The only way to store a significant amount of energy is by having a large body of water located on a hill relatively near, but as high as possible above, a second body of water. In some places this occurs naturally, in others one or both bodies of water have been man-made.

This system may be economical because it flattens out load variations on the power grid, permitting thermal power stations such as coal-fired plants and nuclear power plants and renewable energy power plants that provide base-load electricity to continue operating at peak efficiency (Base load power plants), while reducing the need for "peaking" power plants that use costly fuels. However, capital costs for purpose-built hydrostorage are high.

Along with energy management, pumped storage systems help control electrical network frequency and provide reserve generation. Thermal plants are much less able to respond to sudden changes in electrical demand, potentially causing frequency and voltage instability. Pumped storage plants, like other hydroelectric plants, can respond to load changes within seconds.

The first use of pumped storage was in the 1890s in Italy and Switzerland. In the 1930s reversible hydroelectric turbines became available. These turbines could operate as both turbine-generators and in reverse as electric motor driven pumps. The latest in large-scale engineering technology are variable speed machines for greater efficiency. These machines generate in synchronisation with the network frequency, but operate asynchronously (independent of the network frequency) as motor-pumps.

A new use for pumped storage is to level the fluctuating output of intermittent power sources. The pumped storage absorbs load at times of high output and low demand, while providing additional peak capacity. In certain jurisdictions, electricity prices may be close to zero or occasionally negative (Ontario in early September, 2006), indicating there is more generation than load available to absorb it; although at present this is rarely due to wind alone, increased wind generation may increase the likelihood of such occurrences. It is particularly likely that pumped storage will become especially important as a balance for very large scale photovoltaic generation.

Pumped Storage is Potential technologies

The use of underground reservoirs as lower dams has been investigated. Salt mines could be used, although ongoing and unwanted dissolution of salt could be a problem. If they prove affordable, underground systems might greatly expand the number of pumped storage sites. Saturated brine is about 20% more dense than fresh water.

A new concept is to use wind turbines or solar power to drive water pumps directly, in effect an 'Energy Storing Wind or Solar Dam'. This could provide a more efficient process and usefully smooth out the variability of energy captured from the wind or sun.

One can use pumped sea water to store the energy. A potential example of this could be used in a tidal barrage or tidal lagoon. A potential benefit of this arises if seawater is allowed to flow behind the barrage or into the lagoon at high tide when the water level is roughly equal either side of the barrier, when the potential energy difference is close to zero. Then water is released at low tide when a head of water has been built up behind the barrier, when there is a far greater potential energy difference between the two bodies of water. The result being that when the energy used to pump the water is recovered, it will have multiplied to a degree depending on the head of water built up. A further enhancement is to pump more water at high tide further increasing the head with for example intermittent renewable. Downsides: the generator must be below sea level, and marine organisms would tend to grow on the equipment and disrupt operation. This is not a major problem for the EDF La Rance Tidal power station in France.

Instead of pumping water uphill, the pumped storage idea can be inverted, pumping air under water.

There are four generating methods on hydroelectricity to generates power.

Conventional

Most hydroelectric power comes from the potential energy of dammed water driving a water turbine and generator. The power extracted from the water depends on the volume and on the difference in height between the source and the water's outflow. This height difference is called the head. The amount of potential energy in water is proportional to the head. To deliver water to a turbine while maintaining pressure arising from the head, a large pipe called a penstock may be used.

Pumped-storage

This method produces electricity to supply high peak demands by moving water between reservoirs at different elevations. At times of low electrical demand, excess generation capacity is used to pump water into the higher reservoir. When there is higher demand, water is released back into the lower reservoir through a turbine. Pumped-storage schemes currently provide the most commercially important means of large-scale grid energy storage and improve the daily capacity factor of the generation system.

Run-of-the-river

Run-of-the-river hydroelectric stations are those with smaller reservoir capacities, thus making it impossible to store water.

Tide

A tidal power plant makes use of the daily rise and fall of water due to tides; such sources are highly predictable, and if conditions permit construction of reservoirs, can also be dispatchable to generate power during high demand periods. Less common types of hydro schemes use water's kinetic energy or undammed sources such as undershot waterwheels.